Biography of Robert Hooke, the Man Who Discovered Cells

Biography of Robert Hooke, the Man Who Discovered Cells Robert Hooke (July 18, 1635–March 3, 1703) was a 17th-century natural philosopher- an early scientist- noted for a variety of observations of the natural world. But perhaps his most notable discovery came in 1665 when he looked at a sliver of cork through a microscope lens and discovered cells. Fast Facts: Robert Hooke Known For: Experiments with a microscope, including the discovery of cells, and coining of the termBorn: July 18, 1635 in Freshwater, the Isle of Wight, EnglandParents: John Hooke, vicar of Freshwater and his second wife Cecily GylesDied: March 3, 1703 in LondonEducation: Westminster in London, and Christ Church at Oxford, as a laboratory assistant of Robert BoylePublished Works: Micrographia: or some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies made by Magnifying Glasses with Observations and Inquiries Thereupon Early Life Robert Hooke was born July 18, 1635, in Freshwater on the Isle of Wight off the southern coast of England, the son of the vicar of Freshwater John Hooke and his second wife Cecily Gates. His health was delicate as a child, so Robert was kept at home until after his father died. In 1648, when Hooke was 13, he went to London and was first apprenticed to painter Peter Lely and proved fairly good at the art, but he left because the fumes affected him. He enrolled at Westminster School in London, where he received a solid academic education including Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and also gained training as an instrument maker. He later went on to Oxford and, as a product of Westminster, entered Christ Church college, where he became the friend and laboratory assistant of Robert Boyle, best known for his natural law of gases known as Boyles Law. Hooke invented a wide range of things at Christ Church, including a balance spring for watches, but he published few of them. He did publish a tract on capillary attraction in 1661, and it was that treatise the brought him to the attention of the Royal Society for Promoting Natural History, founded just a year earlier. The Royal Society The Royal Society for Promoting Natural History (or Royal Society) was founded in November 1660 as a group of like-minded scholars. It was not associated with a particular university but rather funded under the patronage of the British king Charles II. Members during Hookes day included Boyle, the architect Christopher Wren, and the natural philosophers John Wilkins and Isaac Newton; today, it boasts 1,600 fellows from around the world. In 1662, the Royal Society offered Hooke the initially unpaid curator position, to furnish the society with three or four experiments each week- they promised to pay him as soon as the society had the money. Hooke did eventually get paid for the curatorship, and when he was named a professor of geometry, he gained housing at Gresham college. Hooke remained in those positions for the rest of his life; they offered him the opportunity to research whatever interested him. Observations and Discoveries Hooke was, like many of the members of the Royal Society, wide-reaching in his interests. Fascinated by seafaring and navigation, Hooke invented a depth sounder and water sampler. In September 1663, he began keeping daily weather records, hoping that would lead to reasonable weather predictions. He invented or improved all five basic meteorological instruments (the barometer, thermometer, hydroscope, rain gauge, and wind gauge), and developed and printed a form to record weather data. Some 40 years before Hooke joined the Royal Society, Galileo had invented the microscope (called an occhiolino  at the time, or wink in Italian); as curator, Hooke bought a commercial version and began an extremely wide and varying amount of research with it, looking at plants, molds, sand, and fleas. Among his discoveries were fossil shells in sand (now recognized as foraminifera), spores in mold, and the bloodsucking practices of mosquitoes and lice. Discovery of the Cell Hooke is best known today for his identification of the cellular structure of plants. When he looked at a sliver of cork through his microscope, he noticed some pores or cells in it. Hooke believed the cells had served as containers for the noble juices or fibrous threads of the once-living cork tree. He thought these cells existed only in plants, since he and his scientific contemporaries had observed the structures only in plant material. Nine months of experiments and observations are recorded in his 1665 book Micrographia: or some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies made by Magnifying Glasses with Observations and Inquiries Thereupon, the first book describing observations made through a microscope. It featured many drawings, some of which have been attributed to Christopher Wren, such as that of a detailed flea observed through the microscope. Hooke was the first person to use the word cell to identify microscopic structures when he was describing cork. His other observations and discoveries include: Hookes Law: A  law of elasticity for solid bodies, which described how tension increases and decreases in a spring coilVarious observations on the nature of gravity, as well as heavenly bodies such as comets and planetsThe nature of fossilization, and its implications for biological history Death and Legacy Hooke was a brilliant scientist, a pious Christian, and a difficult and impatient man. What kept him from true success was a lack of interest in mathematics. Many of his ideas inspired and were completed by others in and outside of the Royal Society, such as the Dutch pioneer microbiologist Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), navigator and geographer William Dampier (1652–1715), geologist Niels Stenson (better known as Steno, 1638–1686), and Hookes personal nemesis, Isaac Newton (1642–1727). When the Royal Society published Newtons Principia in 1686, Hooke accused him of plagiarism, a situation so profoundly affecting Newton that he put off publishing Optics until after Hooke was dead. Hooke kept a diary in which he discussed his infirmities, which were many, but although it doesnt have literary merit like Samuel Pepys, it also describes many details of daily life in London after the Great Fire. He died, suffering from scurvy and other unnamed and unknown illnesses, on March 3, 1703. He neither married nor had children. Sources Egerton, Frank N. A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 16: Robert Hooke and the Royal Society of London. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 86.2 (2005): 93–101. Print.Jardine, Lisa. Monuments and Microscopes: Scientific Thinking on a Grand Scale in the Early Royal Society. Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 55.2 (2001): 289–308. Print.Nakajima, Hideto. Robert Hookes Family and His Youth: Some New Evidence from the Will of the Rev. John Hooke. Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 48.1 (1994): 11–16. Print.Whitrow, G. J. Robert Hooke. Philosophy of Science 5.4 (1938): 493–502. Print.

Plagiarism is academic dishonesty Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Plagiarism is academic dishonesty - Essay Example Writing is the fundamental source of knowledge which is vital for progress and development in all areas. Therefore, writing has to be original and the ownership must be declared. Avoiding plagiarism is also necessary in order to improve the validity of information. When an individual owns a piece of writing, he/she essentially becomes responsible for the credibility of information given therein. This paper tends to explore what plagiarism and academic dishonesty are and the factors that influence academic dishonesty. Literature Review Plagiarism Plagiarism can be defined as the act of taking and using an individual’s thoughts, inventions, or writings and presenting them as your own in your paper. It is an honesty concern and it entails attempting to persuade someone like a college professor that the piece of writing or the idea is your original work, when you are aware that someone else exactly used the thought you did (Cruey 1). In other words, plagiarism is a literary theft. It is the stealth of ideas as well as words. Plagiarized work creates confusions about the original ownership of the data.

Does international law function effectively Essay

Does international law function effectively - Essay Example If we expand the definition to include nation states and simplify it somewhat we can say that any particular act can be seen as a crime if the international community defines it as such3.This is clearly the state of affairs when one examines the current state and the historical foundations of international law where crimes were said to be committed when countries broke agreements with each other, went back on treaties signed with groups of other nations, ignored international decisions or behaved in a inappropriate manner4 for a nation that wishes to be integrated into the larger global cooperative system that is currently taking place in the history of civilisation5. While this may show that international law and regulations have failed, it cab be shown that the law itself has not failed rather it is application of the law which has missed the mark completely. As a basic element of civilized living, it seems that the idea for not breaking any rules and following the law is ingrained into the members of a group simply because without respect for and agreement on certain rules, a society could completely fall under anarchy. To maintain laws, there is also the intimidation of punishment linked to breaking the laws but if a country or a ruler of a country knows that they can get away with it then it would be unlikely that they would continue to follow the law without incredible self restraint6. Even on an individual level, a society where certain powerful members or the elite play give little regard to the laws of the collective, the society can eventually get to a position where the law is utterly powerless and in many ways, this idea certainly applies to the global arena7. As there are lawgivers and lawbreakers in the global arena, there are also people and organisations responsible for keeping the law. In a city, town or country, it is relatively easy to enforce the law mainly because jurisdiction issues are not present. However, in the case of

Frankfurt School Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Frankfurt School - Essay Example This Public Institution began in 1923, where Marxism was the main theory as part of the Institute's proceedings. It was the first Institute of Research that followed Marxism. This change took place so as to do away with the Christian Religion and ideologies that involved the lives of the European people and other relevant matters. The members of the Frankfurt School developed a theory that was meant to change the entire system by which people of that century were living. The Frankfurt School was in full gear to wipe out Christianity completely not only from the lives of all students but even in the social circle and within families. Their main aim was to create a turning point in society where philosophical theory (metaphysics) did not fit into their concept and their outlook to life was a material world that depended on logical reasoning. This was an era of modernization with the synopsis of Marxism. Max Horkheimer took charge as Director of this institute in the year 1930. Horkheimer laid stress on the connection between Social philosophy and science. This institute developed a social theory that involved different branches of learning that could serve as an implementing tool to radically reform social conditions. This theory involved a combination of sociology, psychology, cultural and political economy along with the social and philosophical theory termed as "synthesis of social and philosophical theory". It also supported women's rights, racial equality, different kinds of post-colonial criticism. One of the series of studies that was vivid at the Institute of Social Research were the theories that involved exclusive trading privilege in the capital markets along with the advancement and functions of technology. It also involved trade between large dominant Corporate in the capital markets. In this study it also showed the deterioration of both "democracy" and "the identity of an individual". It also revealed the part played by the various cultures in the trading societies and the communication involved which gave rise to modernization in these various societies. It connected theories that were to take their place in the heart of social reformation making it last for many decades to come. The individuals involved in such thinking belonged to different branches of learning with a high level of intelligence. This intellectual thinking enabled them to keep the fundamentals of social theory always responsive and active even during a difficult historical era. During these tough situations these

Jurisprudence 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Jurisprudence 2 - Essay Example uggests that though main purpose of law is to protect interests of common people and maintain an atmosphere of social discipline, the issue of equality should not be ignored and all those institutions that are responsible for legal enforcement, should also be restrained from executing such steps that would violate the state of equality. Equal protection of law, which comes aftermath, reflects the ideal that law should be protected equally and the state of equal protection can only be attained if equality before law is respected accordingly. However, looking at social structure and consequent legal discourses that are aimed at attaining the situation of equality, it can be said that such state of equality has not been attained and in â€Å"Law & Ideology†, Robert Gordon, after analyzing nature of such legal discourses has pointed out, â€Å""[L]egal discourses ... routinely help to create and maintain the ordinary inequalities of everyday social life †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Gordon, 20 08, p. 1226). A chronological study of ancient to modern legal philosophy, sociology and theories of social construction would clearly point out that according to jurisprudential arguments, one of the major reasons behind failure to attain desired social equality is several issues that have become integrally associated with different traits of human existence and restrain them from respecting the issue of equal existence. It is very often said that people were equal at the stage of their natural existence but since the time they became aware about necessity to develop community and live as social creatures, factors of equality or inequality intervened and later on started to dominate their existence. With the progress of human civilization and result of intellectual movements, people were gradually becoming aware of factors like, gender, class, social status, ethnicity, national identity, sexual orientation etc. While a particular section of people regarded understanding of these factors as scope to

Managment Planning Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Managment Planning - Research Paper Example Presently, the organization operates in over 60 international markets. The objectives of the organization are to attain an overall growth in terms of governance, organizational culture, customer retention and enhanced financial strength (Tyco, 2011). Therefore, management planning holds a vital role in the decision-making process of the organization. The objective of the paper will be to recognize the various management functions considered in the organization, i.e. ‘planning, organizing, leading and controlling’ as identified by Bateman & Snell (2009). It will further intend to evaluate the influences of legal issues, ethical considerations and corporate social responsibilities (CSR) on the management planning. It will also intend to identify and evaluate three other factors in the external and/or in the internal environment which have a significant influence on the strategic, tactical, operational and contingency planning. 2.0. Planning Functions of Management Accordin g to Bateman & Snell (2009), â€Å"management is the process of working with people and resources to accomplish organisational goals†. In order to execute the process with efficiency it is quite essential for the managers to take the support of a well-structured management planning. ... organizational leaders to identify the further scope of the business in terms of product line and efficiency but also plays a major role in rewarding an enhanced strategic value to the organization (Bateman & Snell, 2009). To be related with Tyco’s long-term management planning, its further initiation concentrates on its growth strategies. During the management planning for the future years, the company leaders also consider the opportunities focusing on the investments in ADT, marketing & sales and R&D (research & development). The planning also includes ‘bolt-on acquisitions’ along with further concentration on productivity improvements and capital allocations (Tyco, 2011). The planning function executed by Tyco can be observed as entirely based on the goals, i.e. to attain overall development comprising every aspect of the organization. Hence, the planning functions of the organization can be referred to be as highly effective considering the aspects raised by Bateman and Snell. 2.2. Organizing Organizing is referred to as a complex process considering almost every aspect involved in the management decision-making, from financial factors to the issues related with human resources. While executing the function, managers should not only consider the aspects active in the internal environment of the organization, but also emphasize on the external influencing factors, such as laws, socio-demographic features and others (Bateman & Snell, 2009). In this regard, the organizational leaders can be witnessed to effectively organize the available resources with due consideration to the external influencing factors. For instance, the strategic objective of the organization correlates with the technological, operational and branding or marketing along with the

Jurisprudence 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Jurisprudence 2 - Essay Example uggests that though main purpose of law is to protect interests of common people and maintain an atmosphere of social discipline, the issue of equality should not be ignored and all those institutions that are responsible for legal enforcement, should also be restrained from executing such steps that would violate the state of equality. Equal protection of law, which comes aftermath, reflects the ideal that law should be protected equally and the state of equal protection can only be attained if equality before law is respected accordingly. However, looking at social structure and consequent legal discourses that are aimed at attaining the situation of equality, it can be said that such state of equality has not been attained and in â€Å"Law & Ideology†, Robert Gordon, after analyzing nature of such legal discourses has pointed out, â€Å""[L]egal discourses ... routinely help to create and maintain the ordinary inequalities of everyday social life †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Gordon, 20 08, p. 1226). A chronological study of ancient to modern legal philosophy, sociology and theories of social construction would clearly point out that according to jurisprudential arguments, one of the major reasons behind failure to attain desired social equality is several issues that have become integrally associated with different traits of human existence and restrain them from respecting the issue of equal existence. It is very often said that people were equal at the stage of their natural existence but since the time they became aware about necessity to develop community and live as social creatures, factors of equality or inequality intervened and later on started to dominate their existence. With the progress of human civilization and result of intellectual movements, people were gradually becoming aware of factors like, gender, class, social status, ethnicity, national identity, sexual orientation etc. While a particular section of people regarded understanding of these factors as scope to